Engineering codes of ethics, case scenarios, and societies that enforce them Essay

Ethics can be defined as a branch within the wider field of philosophy whose main concern is addressing the issue of morality. Morality as a concept seeks to justify actions as good or bad, right or wrong and whether such actions are justified and virtuous. Ethics in itself is divided into many categories which normally vary to suit the issue at hand. From a general perspective, ethics can be widely grouped into theoretical and practical ethics. The theoretical aspect is concerned with theoretical meanings of moral propositions and the manner in which their truth values can be ascertained. The practical aspect of ethics seeks to address the possibility of achieving moral outcomes in a given situation (Luegenbiehl, 2003). Engineering ethics in this context is part of applied ethics that is skewed towards the examination and the setting of standards concerning the duty of an engineer to the general public, how they should attend to their clients, their duty to their employer, and their obligation towards enhancing and maintaining the moral integrity of the engineering profession. Engineering as a profession is very diverse in terms of the possible branches one can venture into. This diversity make some of the engineering fields share only very limited principles. While most of these disciplines tend to complement each other, these engineers are bound to work in different environments. As such there cannot be a unifying code of ethics for the whole engineering fraternity. Ethical codes in this profession are largely dependent on the exact field of specialization and the jurisdiction of practice. Another factor that comes into play is whether an engineer is providing consultancy service to his clients or the engineer is an employee of a given manufacturing enterprise (Colby & Sullivan, 2008). In most countries, the engineers who attend to their clients are normally referred to as professional engineers and are usually licensed. They abide by codes that ensure professional ethics and to a larger extent governed by a number of statutes. Their counterparts who practice in the manufacturing industry have to abide by certain laws, key among them being whistle blowing and also the law of product liability. Their practice leans more towards business ethics as compared to engineering ethics. Professional engineers are usually in private practice and are always responsible for drafting some of the codes of ethics that govern their profession. Engineers who practice in the industrial sector do not enjoy accreditation by the relevant government agencies. It is an arguable fact that despite the field and sector of practice, these engineers face similar ethical issues. Similar in the sense that they share the same root causes but only change slightly in form depending on the discipline and the sector of practice (Luegenbiehl, 2003). Engineering societies have for a long time drafted their own codes of ethics. These codes of ethics have undergone a series of refinement over time in a bid to make them more viable to overcoming ethical issues. Such codes of ethics usually act as general guidelines since ethical issues are very diverse and as such some of these codes have to be adjusted to suit the situation at hand. In the United Kingdom, a notable example is the ‘Institution of Civil Engineers (ICE)’, which chose to incorporate its ethical codes into the standards of conduct. The code of ethics in engineering basically seeks to ensure the wellbeing of the public, the clients in the case of a professional engineer, the employer for the engineers who practice in the industry, and for the enhancement of the moral integrity of the engineering profession (Colby & Sullivan, 2008). Any engineering profession is susceptible to a number of risks some of which may be detrimental to a wider section of the population. With this risk in mind, the first aim of an engineer is to ensure the safety and health, not only of the general public but also for themselves and their workmates. Engineers are required to subscribe to principles that ensure sustainable development in the course of their undertakings. Since the engineering profession is very diverse, an engineer who may be very competent in his field of specialization may not be able to achieve much in another line of engineering. For most of the engineering societies around the world, there are basic ethical codes that they seem to share in common. A code of ethics in the field of engineering always restricts engineers to stick to their areas of specialization. This is to avoid exposing himself and the general public to the imminent danger. An engineer is required to speak the truth on the technical aspects of a job and maintain a professional relationship with the employer or his client. Conflict of interest is a sure way to compromise and as such should always be avoided by an engineer. An engineer is supposed to safeguard the integrity and the interest of the engineering profession. In as much as an engineer is supposed to advance career wise, they have an obligation of ensuring professional growth for their juniors. According to the law of whistle blowing, an engineer is more obliged to safety than he is to the client or to his employer. This law requires the engineer to report cases where their employers or clients fail to follow their directions and in the process are exposing the public to potential danger. In some instances, some the relevant authorities fail to take action and this may end up in the engineer going public (Luegenbiehl, 2003). The most notable cases of disaster in the field of engineering have been caused by both technical and ethical issues. While some of these accidents have been due to technical aspects and design inadequacies, others have been due to inefficient management culture. Some of the cases that have been established to have an ethical dimension on their occurrence include the Chernobyl disaster, Bhopal disaster, Boston molasses accident, Johnstown Flood, just to mention but a few (Pfatteicher, 2001). Chernobyl disaster was an incident that took place in Ukraine, and it involved the meltdown in a nuclear reactor plant. This accident was to a larger extent blamed on human error. The personnel were blamed for using a limited ‘operational reactivity margin. ’ The disaster caused to the people living within the neighbourhood was immense in gravity and most of the effects were of a long term nature. The mental health of the people was extremely affected; cases of cancer were later reported to be rampant in the area. All these effects came about due to the irradiation of the area by radioactive material. The workers were also affected with more than thirty losing their lives within a span of three months from the time of occurrence of the disaster. An advisory group that was later formed to look into the cause of this disaster blamed the people who were responsible for the design of the power plant. They failed to consider certain pertinent aspects of the design which could have prevented such an occurrence or which could have ensured that the accident did not proceed to reach the level it did. It was realized that in the course of preparation and subsequent testing of turbine generators, it was done without the incorporation of systems that were responsible for technical protection. This was viewed to have been a breach of the safety provisions that were required for the actual technical exercise (Pfatteicher, 2001). Some of the most outstanding organizations that are concerned with engineering ethics include the ‘Institute of Civil Engineers (ICE)’ in the United Kingdom, the ‘Canadian Society for Professional Engineers,’ and the ‘National Society of Professional Engineers (NSPE)’ which have been seen to be championing for the upholding of ethical practices within the engineering field. The reasons for their establishments are to ensure that engineers in private practice, the government and in the manufacturing sector are able to subscribe to a common code of ethics within a given jurisdiction. Such bodies have certain punitive measures to their members in cases where ethics appear to have been sidelined in making decisions. To ensure that engineers adhere to such codes set by these organizations, it is mandatory to be registered with certain bodies within given jurisdictions to practice as an engineer (Haws, 2001). There has been a general drift towards formulating an all encompassing code of ethics for all engineers throughout the world. This has been noted by the fact that the codes formulated by most societies throughout the world appear to be having certain similarities. While this appears to be a very noble idea, some room and allowances will have to be allowed to accommodate the different cultures in the world. It is deemed that developing a set of common ethical codes and supplementing it with additional entries that regard the cultural setting and the exact field of specialization within engineering. The codes should be set out in such a manner that no confusion can be reported within a given jurisdiction (Luegenbiehl, 2003). References: Colby, A. , & Sullivan, W. M. 2008, â€Å"Ethics Teaching in Undergraduate Engineering Education. † Journal of Engineering Education, Vol. 97. Haws, D. R. 2001, â€Å"Ethics Instruction in Engineering Education: a (Mini) Meta-analysis. † Journal of Engineering Education, Vol. 90. Luegenbiehl, H. C. 2003, Themes for an International Code of Engineering Ethics. Retrieved on 9th February 2010, from: . Pfatteicher, S. K. , 2001, â€Å"Teaching Vs. Preaching: Ec2000 and the Engineering Ethics Dilemma. † Journal of Engineering Education, Vol. 90.

Industrial revolution

The Industrial Revolution was a time of drastic change and transformation from use of hand tools and handmade items to machine-made and mass produced goods. This change generally helped life, but also hindered it as well. Pollution, such as carbon dioxide levels in the atmosphere, rose. Working conditions declined, and the number of women and children working increased. The government, the arts, literature, music, architecture, and man's way of looking at life all changed during the period.Two revolutions took place, both resulting in productive, but also dire onsequences. The Industrial Revolution's impact on Europe like the mechanization of the textile industries, the development of iron-making techniques and the increased use of refined coal. Trade expansion was enabled by the introduction of canals, improved roads and railways. The Industrial Revolution provided both the mechanical engine of progress and the emotional engine of progress. These two things, the capacity to expand a nd the will to expand, fed directly into imperialism.Marxist Theory also made a huge because it developed socialism and communism, by placing more emphasis on value, rather than generating profit. Before the first Industrial Revolution, England's economy was based on its cottage industry. Workers bought raw materials from merchants and took it back to their cottages, and produce the goods at their home. It was usually owned and managed by one or more people, who were generally close to the workers. There was a good worker/boss relationship, which was demolished and destroyed by capitalism (Wyatt 7).This industry was efficient but the workers' productivity was low and it made costs higher. The longer it took one person to manufacture a product, the higher the price. Subsequently, goods ere more expensive and exclusive only to the wealthy people. In 1733, the demand for cotton cloth was high, but production was low. This crisis had to be solved or England's economy would be hindered. The answer came from a British weaver, John Kay, who invented and fashioned the flying shuttle, which cut weaving time in half. John Kay was a pioneer and his invention paved the way for numerous inventors (Wyatt 13).Although at first many workers didn't accept machines, in fact, many inventions were destroyed. But what was inevitable, couldn't be stopped. the 1750's, the Industrial Revolution had begun. At first, inventions were strictly limited to cotton weaving. Inventions such as the spinning Jenny and the water- powered frame, both of which provided spinning yarn faster, the spinning mule, the power loom and the cotton gin all helped the manufacture of cotton goods by speeding up the process (Wyatt 35). Mass production had begun, along with capitalism.Capitalists, people who have their own materials, money and space, bought many machines and stored them in a factory. They hired people to run the machines and produce manufacturing goods. The factory system had replaced the cotta ge industry. Mass production made usually expensive items, such as shoes, but now they make less expensive and affordable to more people. The quality of life had improved. In the 1800's, inventions werent Just limited to the cotton industry. Steam engines were invented, providing a faster mode of transportation, instead of the use from rivers and sources of water, to thrive (Wyatt 58).The First Industrial Revolution merged into the Second Industrial Revolution around 1850, when technological and economic progress gained momentum with the development of steam powered ships and railways, and, later in the nineteenth century, with the nternal combustion engine and electrical power generation. The torrent of technological innovation and subsequent social transformation continued throughout the twentieth century, contributing to further disruption of human life circumstances (Beard 25).Today, different parts of the world remain at different stages in the Industrial Revolution with some o f the countries behind in terms of industrial development being in a position, through adopting the latest technologies, to leapfrog over even some more advanced countries that are now locked into the infrastructure of an earlier technology. The first Industrial Revolution had forever changed England, and later the world. England was now ready for another change, as life with machinery had already been assimilated into society.The second Industrial Revolution proved more drastic not only in inventions, but in social and government policies and reforms. Art and culture flourished and was transformed into many different and unique styles. The second Industrial Revolution utilized the power of electricity to help develop technology, to help social and home life. Michael Faraday, a British scientist, demonstrated how an electric current could be made. This concept and principle is still used today. Electricity improved life by supplying people with light and electricity to power machine s (Thomas).Communications improved as a result of electricity (Thomas). The telephone and telegraph were the first communicational devices that were for public use (Thomas). With the development of technology, radio waves were discovered (Thomas). Now messages could be sent over long distances in virtually no time. Advances in science were also made. The discovery of radioactivity by Marie Curie used radioactivity as a power source, but also led to the discovery of the nuclear bomb. During the 1800's over 70,000 chemical compounds were broken down (Beard 45).Some of these were Portland cement, vulcanized rubber, synthetic dyes, and petroleum products. Petroleum began to be widely used as an alternate energy source (Beard 46). Gasoline was also needed for transportation, which evolved from steam engines to the internal combustion engine (Beard 47). The internal combustion engine made transportation faster and decreased the need for public transportation because people could own a the ir own cars. During this time, another a new technology was born in the field of transportation.Orville and Wilbur Wright successfully completed the first airplane flight at Kitty Hawk. The air plane industry was born (Hudson 15). Prior to vaccinations, medicine before the 1750's and in the 1750's wasn't well developed. Once infection set in, nothing was possible to save the patient. Various diseases couldn't be stopped or controlled because of limited technology. In the 1850's however, vaccinations were discovered and administered. X rays were also discovered and provided doctors with a faster way of diagnosing medical problems.Louis Pasteur discovered and fabricated a way to eliminate all germs in milk. Called pasteurization, this technique is now widely used on all milk. The technique involves heating the milk to slow the fermentation process (Clare 23). and plants evolve from a lower species. He also developed the concept of Social Darwinism that the strongest survive. Many peop le contested his ideas and argued against them (Doty 25). Life was drastically changed during the Industrial Revolution. People were living in germ infested, crowded and very unhealthy conditions, much like their place of work (Hudson 45-46).Children and women labored in harsh conditions, working long hours with little pay (Hudson 34). The British Parliament stepped in to limit and control child labor (Hudson 34). This sparked a rebellion. People, especially wealthy capitalists, wanted the government to stay out of its issues. It was called the laissez-faire system (Hudson 56-57). Many people opposed the laissez-faire system, saying the capitalists would gain too much power and people would be mistreated. The laissez-faire system was disregarded after a few years, and it is still used today.Art changed with the different ideas of social Darwinism, the laissez-faire system and the Industrial Revolution. Romantic artists painted emotions that they had no control over, such as love, re ligion, and beauty. It showed more of how people felt at one moment in time. Realism tried to capture what was really happening, all of the sadness, and tried to make people work to change what was happening (Wyatt 65). Socialists were reformers who wanted to construct a better life for all people. Among them, Robert Owen, an owner of a textile mill, whose reforms reshaped the working class.He raised pay, improved working conditions, and didn't allow children younger than eleven to work. Directly elated to Owens' reforms, crime and disease rates dropped and life improved. Marx, another socialist, started the class struggle (Wyatt 68). The conflict between the different classes of people, made an impact on the changes that occur in history. The Industrial Revolution brought on more technology, wealth and power, but at what consequence? The people were living in filth, working unthinkable hours and being paid very little.The revolution shaped modern society to what it is today. As Rou sseau said, â€Å"Civilization spoils people â€Å"(Montagna),† but did people spoil civilization by implementing machines to do our work? The Industrial Revolution provided both the mechanical engine of progress and the emotional engine of progress. These two things, the capacity to expand and the will to expand, fed directly into imperialism. On a more direct, grounded level, the Industrial Revolution gave Europeans the ability to mass produce weapons and technologies.This gave rise to a need to export manufactured goods and under the Mercantile Economic System (which was in its final days) export regions were taken as colonies to be administrated by the producing power. The weapons that were mass produced made warfare much easier. The technologies and products that came out of the factories raised the standard of living of Europeans, which lead to an increased value in how they saw their civilization. Europeans believed that their culture was behind their consistent techn ological progress, and moved to annex regions to â€Å"improve† their culture.This mentality was encapsulated by the White Man's Burden (Newton). The Expansion of Empire itself was also symbolic of European dominance and cultural superiority as they reasoned that only powerful empires can expand over new territories. Even though the Industrial Revolution significantly helped the United States and Western Europe, there were few consequences with the Industrial produced so much fewer educated people than Europe or North America. The pioneers who had done so well with first-generation approaches, technology, and general attitudes saw little need for improvement until too late.Eric John Ernest Hobsbawm was a British Marxist historian of the rise of industrial capitalism, socialism, and nationalism. Hobsbawn claimed that since the British middle class made money so easily in the first years of the Industrial Revolution, they simply did not work as hard as their rivals in other cou ntries. Workers, which were average people, were disadvantaged because the Industrial Revolution brought massive greed from big businesses run by people like Andrew Carnegie, John D. Rockefeller, and J. P Morgan. These employers demanded longer working hours (usually 12-hour shifts) and lower pay (Clare 34-37) .There were harsh conditions and no regulations that protected the workers (Clare 42-44). No unions. This was what led to the rise of socialism/communism and the unions (Clare 45). During the Industrial Revolution, big business controlled the government more than the government controlled itself. Thus, there were no environmental pollution laws. Factories could spit out as much pollution as they wanted and freely dump into the world's oceans (Clare 55). Its effects are still today, and has devastated certain parts of the world.Due to the Industrial Revolution, many Western European nations, particularly England, France, Portugal, Germany, and Spain, had a massive need for reso urces. Thus, they occupied underdeveloped and weak civilizations in Africa and the Americas (Princeton). This was an easy way to get free resources and feed their growing industrial might. But it ad a devastating effect on the people living there, as they were often treated harshly and without care. The Industrial Revolution marked a major turning point in Earth's ecology and humans' relationship with their environment.The Industrial Revolution dramatically changed every aspect of human life and lifestyles. The impact on the world's psyche would not begin to register until the early 1960s, some 200 years after its beginnings. From human development, health and life longevity, to social improvements and the impact on natural resources, public health, energy usage and sanitation, the effects were profound (Princeton). The onset of the Industrial Revolution marked a major turning point in human history, almost every aspect of daily life was eventually influenced in some way.It started with the mechanization of the textile industries, the development of iron-making techniques, and the increased use of refined coal (Doty 2). Trade expansion was enabled by the introduction of canals, improved roads and railways. The introduction of steam power fuelled primarily by coal, wider utilization of water wheels and powered machinery (mainly in textile manufacturing) underpinned the dramatic increases in roduction capacity (Doty 3). The development of all-metal machine tools in the first two decades of the 19th century facilitated the manufacture of more production machines for manufacturing in other industries.The effects spread throughout Western Europe and North America during the 19th century, eventually affecting most of the world, a process that continues. The impact of this change on society was enormous (Doty 4). The Industrial Revolution witnessed the triumph of a middle class of industrialists, and businessmen over a landed class of nobility and gentry. Ordinary wo rking people found increased opportunities for employment in the new hours of labor dominated by a pace set by machines. However, harsh working conditions were prevalent long before the Industrial Revolution took place.Pre- industrial society was very static and often cruel†child labor, dirty living conditions, and long working hours were Just as prevalent as before the Industrial Revolution (Corrick 42). The factory system was largely responsible for the rise of the modern city, as large numbers of workers migrated into the cities to work in factories. The transition to industrialization was not without difficulty. For example, a group of English workers known as Luddites protested against industrialization and sometimes sabotaged factories.Child labor had existed before the Industrial Revolution, but with the increase in population and education it became more visible. Many children were forced to work in relatively bad conditions for much lower pay than their elders (Corric k 46). Living conditions during the Industrial Revolution varied from the splendor of the homes of the owners, to the squalor of the lives of he workers. Poor people lived in very small houses in cramped streets. These homes share toilet facilities, had open sewers and were damp (Corrick 67).The Industrial Revolution concentrated labor into mills, factories and mines, thus facilitating the organization of combinations, or trade unions to help advance the interests of working people. The power of a union could demand better terms by withdrawing all labor and causing a consequent cessation of production. They forced employers to decide between giving in to the union demands at a cost to themselves, or suffer the ost of the lost production. Skilled workers were hard to replace, and these were the first groups to successfully advance their conditions through this kind of bargaining (cornck 45).During the Industrial Revolution, the life expectancy of children increased dramatically. The percentage of the children born in London who died before the age of five decreased from 74. 5% in 1730-1749, to 31. 8% in 1810-1829 (Corrick 43). Also, there was a significant increase in worker wages during the period 1813-1913 (cornck 52-54). According to Robert Hughes in The Fatal Shore, the opulation of England and Wales, which had remained steady at 6 million from 1700 to 1740, rose dramatically after 1740.The population of England had more than doubled from 8. 3 million in 1801, to 16. 8 million in 1851 and, by 1901, had nearly doubled again to 30. 5 million (Corrick 55). As living conditions and health care improved during the 19th century, Britain's population doubled every fifty years (Corrick 56-57). Europe's population doubled during the 18th century, from roughly 100 million to almost 200 million, and doubled again during the 19th century, to around 400 million (Corrick 58).The growth of modern industry from the late 18th century onward led to massive urbanization and t he rise of new great cities, first in Europe elsewhere, as new opportunities attracted huge numbers of migrants from rural communities into urban areas. In 1800, only 3% of the world's population lived in cities (Corrick 59), a fgure that rose to nearly 50% at the beginning of the 21st century (Corrick 60). In 1717 Manchester was merely a market town of 10,000 people, but by 1911 it had a population of 2. 3 million (Corrick 61). The Industrial Revolution had a huge impact on the United States and Western Europe.We still use technological advances today and if it wasn't for such advancement we wouldn't have these technologies. Before the Industrial Revolution, each generation of people economic wealth was fairly stagnant. After industrialization, production grew quickly and it generally increased each year. The Industrial Revolution led to many new theories, especially in social, economic, and scientific areas. Many of these theories had positive effects, but quite a few had negative effects. The new scientific theories were mostly positive because many resulted in inventions that improved the uality of life for most people.Social changes had both positive and negative impacts. However, many of the negative impacts, such as poor working conditions and child labor were reformed through formation of labor unions and passage of child labor laws. Industrial revolution The Industrial Revolution was a time of drastic change and transformation from use of hand tools and handmade items to machine-made and mass produced goods. This change generally helped life, but also hindered it as well. Pollution, such as carbon dioxide levels in the atmosphere, rose. Working conditions declined, and the number of women and children working increased. The government, the arts, literature, music, architecture, and man's way of looking at life all changed during the period.Two revolutions took place, both resulting in productive, but also dire onsequences. The Industrial Revolution's impact on Europe like the mechanization of the textile industries, the development of iron-making techniques and the increased use of refined coal. Trade expansion was enabled by the introduction of canals, improved roads and railways. The Industrial Revolution provided both the mechanical engine of progress and the emotional engine of progress. These two things, the capacity to expand a nd the will to expand, fed directly into imperialism.Marxist Theory also made a huge because it developed socialism and communism, by placing more emphasis on value, rather than generating profit. Before the first Industrial Revolution, England's economy was based on its cottage industry. Workers bought raw materials from merchants and took it back to their cottages, and produce the goods at their home. It was usually owned and managed by one or more people, who were generally close to the workers. There was a good worker/boss relationship, which was demolished and destroyed by capitalism (Wyatt 7).This industry was efficient but the workers' productivity was low and it made costs higher. The longer it took one person to manufacture a product, the higher the price. Subsequently, goods ere more expensive and exclusive only to the wealthy people. In 1733, the demand for cotton cloth was high, but production was low. This crisis had to be solved or England's economy would be hindered. The answer came from a British weaver, John Kay, who invented and fashioned the flying shuttle, which cut weaving time in half. John Kay was a pioneer and his invention paved the way for numerous inventors (Wyatt 13).Although at first many workers didn't accept machines, in fact, many inventions were destroyed. But what was inevitable, couldn't be stopped. the 1750's, the Industrial Revolution had begun. At first, inventions were strictly limited to cotton weaving. Inventions such as the spinning Jenny and the water- powered frame, both of which provided spinning yarn faster, the spinning mule, the power loom and the cotton gin all helped the manufacture of cotton goods by speeding up the process (Wyatt 35). Mass production had begun, along with capitalism.Capitalists, people who have their own materials, money and space, bought many machines and stored them in a factory. They hired people to run the machines and produce manufacturing goods. The factory system had replaced the cotta ge industry. Mass production made usually expensive items, such as shoes, but now they make less expensive and affordable to more people. The quality of life had improved. In the 1800's, inventions werent Just limited to the cotton industry. Steam engines were invented, providing a faster mode of transportation, instead of the use from rivers and sources of water, to thrive (Wyatt 58).The First Industrial Revolution merged into the Second Industrial Revolution around 1850, when technological and economic progress gained momentum with the development of steam powered ships and railways, and, later in the nineteenth century, with the nternal combustion engine and electrical power generation. The torrent of technological innovation and subsequent social transformation continued throughout the twentieth century, contributing to further disruption of human life circumstances (Beard 25).Today, different parts of the world remain at different stages in the Industrial Revolution with some o f the countries behind in terms of industrial development being in a position, through adopting the latest technologies, to leapfrog over even some more advanced countries that are now locked into the infrastructure of an earlier technology. The first Industrial Revolution had forever changed England, and later the world. England was now ready for another change, as life with machinery had already been assimilated into society.The second Industrial Revolution proved more drastic not only in inventions, but in social and government policies and reforms. Art and culture flourished and was transformed into many different and unique styles. The second Industrial Revolution utilized the power of electricity to help develop technology, to help social and home life. Michael Faraday, a British scientist, demonstrated how an electric current could be made. This concept and principle is still used today. Electricity improved life by supplying people with light and electricity to power machine s (Thomas).Communications improved as a result of electricity (Thomas). The telephone and telegraph were the first communicational devices that were for public use (Thomas). With the development of technology, radio waves were discovered (Thomas). Now messages could be sent over long distances in virtually no time. Advances in science were also made. The discovery of radioactivity by Marie Curie used radioactivity as a power source, but also led to the discovery of the nuclear bomb. During the 1800's over 70,000 chemical compounds were broken down (Beard 45).Some of these were Portland cement, vulcanized rubber, synthetic dyes, and petroleum products. Petroleum began to be widely used as an alternate energy source (Beard 46). Gasoline was also needed for transportation, which evolved from steam engines to the internal combustion engine (Beard 47). The internal combustion engine made transportation faster and decreased the need for public transportation because people could own a the ir own cars. During this time, another a new technology was born in the field of transportation.Orville and Wilbur Wright successfully completed the first airplane flight at Kitty Hawk. The air plane industry was born (Hudson 15). Prior to vaccinations, medicine before the 1750's and in the 1750's wasn't well developed. Once infection set in, nothing was possible to save the patient. Various diseases couldn't be stopped or controlled because of limited technology. In the 1850's however, vaccinations were discovered and administered. X rays were also discovered and provided doctors with a faster way of diagnosing medical problems.Louis Pasteur discovered and fabricated a way to eliminate all germs in milk. Called pasteurization, this technique is now widely used on all milk. The technique involves heating the milk to slow the fermentation process (Clare 23). and plants evolve from a lower species. He also developed the concept of Social Darwinism that the strongest survive. Many peop le contested his ideas and argued against them (Doty 25). Life was drastically changed during the Industrial Revolution. People were living in germ infested, crowded and very unhealthy conditions, much like their place of work (Hudson 45-46).Children and women labored in harsh conditions, working long hours with little pay (Hudson 34). The British Parliament stepped in to limit and control child labor (Hudson 34). This sparked a rebellion. People, especially wealthy capitalists, wanted the government to stay out of its issues. It was called the laissez-faire system (Hudson 56-57). Many people opposed the laissez-faire system, saying the capitalists would gain too much power and people would be mistreated. The laissez-faire system was disregarded after a few years, and it is still used today.Art changed with the different ideas of social Darwinism, the laissez-faire system and the Industrial Revolution. Romantic artists painted emotions that they had no control over, such as love, re ligion, and beauty. It showed more of how people felt at one moment in time. Realism tried to capture what was really happening, all of the sadness, and tried to make people work to change what was happening (Wyatt 65). Socialists were reformers who wanted to construct a better life for all people. Among them, Robert Owen, an owner of a textile mill, whose reforms reshaped the working class.He raised pay, improved working conditions, and didn't allow children younger than eleven to work. Directly elated to Owens' reforms, crime and disease rates dropped and life improved. Marx, another socialist, started the class struggle (Wyatt 68). The conflict between the different classes of people, made an impact on the changes that occur in history. The Industrial Revolution brought on more technology, wealth and power, but at what consequence? The people were living in filth, working unthinkable hours and being paid very little.The revolution shaped modern society to what it is today. As Rou sseau said, â€Å"Civilization spoils people â€Å"(Montagna),† but did people spoil civilization by implementing machines to do our work? The Industrial Revolution provided both the mechanical engine of progress and the emotional engine of progress. These two things, the capacity to expand and the will to expand, fed directly into imperialism. On a more direct, grounded level, the Industrial Revolution gave Europeans the ability to mass produce weapons and technologies.This gave rise to a need to export manufactured goods and under the Mercantile Economic System (which was in its final days) export regions were taken as colonies to be administrated by the producing power. The weapons that were mass produced made warfare much easier. The technologies and products that came out of the factories raised the standard of living of Europeans, which lead to an increased value in how they saw their civilization. Europeans believed that their culture was behind their consistent techn ological progress, and moved to annex regions to â€Å"improve† their culture.This mentality was encapsulated by the White Man's Burden (Newton). The Expansion of Empire itself was also symbolic of European dominance and cultural superiority as they reasoned that only powerful empires can expand over new territories. Even though the Industrial Revolution significantly helped the United States and Western Europe, there were few consequences with the Industrial produced so much fewer educated people than Europe or North America. The pioneers who had done so well with first-generation approaches, technology, and general attitudes saw little need for improvement until too late.Eric John Ernest Hobsbawm was a British Marxist historian of the rise of industrial capitalism, socialism, and nationalism. Hobsbawn claimed that since the British middle class made money so easily in the first years of the Industrial Revolution, they simply did not work as hard as their rivals in other cou ntries. Workers, which were average people, were disadvantaged because the Industrial Revolution brought massive greed from big businesses run by people like Andrew Carnegie, John D. Rockefeller, and J. P Morgan. These employers demanded longer working hours (usually 12-hour shifts) and lower pay (Clare 34-37) .There were harsh conditions and no regulations that protected the workers (Clare 42-44). No unions. This was what led to the rise of socialism/communism and the unions (Clare 45). During the Industrial Revolution, big business controlled the government more than the government controlled itself. Thus, there were no environmental pollution laws. Factories could spit out as much pollution as they wanted and freely dump into the world's oceans (Clare 55). Its effects are still today, and has devastated certain parts of the world.Due to the Industrial Revolution, many Western European nations, particularly England, France, Portugal, Germany, and Spain, had a massive need for reso urces. Thus, they occupied underdeveloped and weak civilizations in Africa and the Americas (Princeton). This was an easy way to get free resources and feed their growing industrial might. But it ad a devastating effect on the people living there, as they were often treated harshly and without care. The Industrial Revolution marked a major turning point in Earth's ecology and humans' relationship with their environment.The Industrial Revolution dramatically changed every aspect of human life and lifestyles. The impact on the world's psyche would not begin to register until the early 1960s, some 200 years after its beginnings. From human development, health and life longevity, to social improvements and the impact on natural resources, public health, energy usage and sanitation, the effects were profound (Princeton). The onset of the Industrial Revolution marked a major turning point in human history, almost every aspect of daily life was eventually influenced in some way.It started with the mechanization of the textile industries, the development of iron-making techniques, and the increased use of refined coal (Doty 2). Trade expansion was enabled by the introduction of canals, improved roads and railways. The introduction of steam power fuelled primarily by coal, wider utilization of water wheels and powered machinery (mainly in textile manufacturing) underpinned the dramatic increases in roduction capacity (Doty 3). The development of all-metal machine tools in the first two decades of the 19th century facilitated the manufacture of more production machines for manufacturing in other industries.The effects spread throughout Western Europe and North America during the 19th century, eventually affecting most of the world, a process that continues. The impact of this change on society was enormous (Doty 4). The Industrial Revolution witnessed the triumph of a middle class of industrialists, and businessmen over a landed class of nobility and gentry. Ordinary wo rking people found increased opportunities for employment in the new hours of labor dominated by a pace set by machines. However, harsh working conditions were prevalent long before the Industrial Revolution took place.Pre- industrial society was very static and often cruel†child labor, dirty living conditions, and long working hours were Just as prevalent as before the Industrial Revolution (Corrick 42). The factory system was largely responsible for the rise of the modern city, as large numbers of workers migrated into the cities to work in factories. The transition to industrialization was not without difficulty. For example, a group of English workers known as Luddites protested against industrialization and sometimes sabotaged factories.Child labor had existed before the Industrial Revolution, but with the increase in population and education it became more visible. Many children were forced to work in relatively bad conditions for much lower pay than their elders (Corric k 46). Living conditions during the Industrial Revolution varied from the splendor of the homes of the owners, to the squalor of the lives of he workers. Poor people lived in very small houses in cramped streets. These homes share toilet facilities, had open sewers and were damp (Corrick 67).The Industrial Revolution concentrated labor into mills, factories and mines, thus facilitating the organization of combinations, or trade unions to help advance the interests of working people. The power of a union could demand better terms by withdrawing all labor and causing a consequent cessation of production. They forced employers to decide between giving in to the union demands at a cost to themselves, or suffer the ost of the lost production. Skilled workers were hard to replace, and these were the first groups to successfully advance their conditions through this kind of bargaining (cornck 45).During the Industrial Revolution, the life expectancy of children increased dramatically. The percentage of the children born in London who died before the age of five decreased from 74. 5% in 1730-1749, to 31. 8% in 1810-1829 (Corrick 43). Also, there was a significant increase in worker wages during the period 1813-1913 (cornck 52-54). According to Robert Hughes in The Fatal Shore, the opulation of England and Wales, which had remained steady at 6 million from 1700 to 1740, rose dramatically after 1740.The population of England had more than doubled from 8. 3 million in 1801, to 16. 8 million in 1851 and, by 1901, had nearly doubled again to 30. 5 million (Corrick 55). As living conditions and health care improved during the 19th century, Britain's population doubled every fifty years (Corrick 56-57). Europe's population doubled during the 18th century, from roughly 100 million to almost 200 million, and doubled again during the 19th century, to around 400 million (Corrick 58).The growth of modern industry from the late 18th century onward led to massive urbanization and t he rise of new great cities, first in Europe elsewhere, as new opportunities attracted huge numbers of migrants from rural communities into urban areas. In 1800, only 3% of the world's population lived in cities (Corrick 59), a fgure that rose to nearly 50% at the beginning of the 21st century (Corrick 60). In 1717 Manchester was merely a market town of 10,000 people, but by 1911 it had a population of 2. 3 million (Corrick 61). The Industrial Revolution had a huge impact on the United States and Western Europe.We still use technological advances today and if it wasn't for such advancement we wouldn't have these technologies. Before the Industrial Revolution, each generation of people economic wealth was fairly stagnant. After industrialization, production grew quickly and it generally increased each year. The Industrial Revolution led to many new theories, especially in social, economic, and scientific areas. Many of these theories had positive effects, but quite a few had negative effects. The new scientific theories were mostly positive because many resulted in inventions that improved the uality of life for most people.Social changes had both positive and negative impacts. However, many of the negative impacts, such as poor working conditions and child labor were reformed through formation of labor unions and passage of child labor laws. Industrial Revolution The Industrial Revolution led to new ways of organizing human labor, more enterprises, growth of energy and power, faster forms of transportation, higher productivity and more (Cole et al. 451). The first revolution began in the north of Britain in 1 760 and ended in 1850. The Industrial Revolution began in Britain, because its agriculture was more commercialese than nap. Veer else, because of its empire, trade networks and transportations of rivers and canals (Cole et al. 452). Because the first Industrial Revolution made such a huge impact, there was a second one as well.The Second Industrial Revolution was based off of innovation in steel, electricity, and chemicals in Germany (Cole et al. 48). It began in 1870 and ended in 1914. This revolution was a larger phased that occurred during World War l, and it had a lot of different advances as well. The first Industrial Revolution began with a technological leap which was cotton textiles (Cole et al. 453). There were many inventions t hat came along that helped the process of cotton. The spinning jenny that was invented by James Harvests, could produce up to six to twenty-four times more yarn than a hand spinner could (Cole et al. 53). There was also a spinning mule that could produce than more yarn than a spinner. The cotton gin invented by Eli Whitney could separate the cotton seeds from the fiber; therefore it could speed up the process and also reduced the price (Cole et al. 453). These machines were placed by water that could be used to power them, and eventually there were more mills being built where they could be used by steam (Cole et al. 453). There were a lot of cotton textiles on the world market that came from this.Interchangeable parts included the gun-making and the standardized patterns of a gun by Honoree Labeled (Identical). Not only did Eli Whitney produce the cotton gin, but he also produces 1 0,000 guns within two years (Identical). Coal and iron were used as heating sources, and also used fo r railroads. Railroads were created for people to travel long distances. The second Industrial Revolution had a lot of different advances that ranged from steel to communication and also medicine. Germany was the top of chemical advances that included the increase demand of dyes, fabrics and soap (Identical).The medicine during this time was bad. They needed better healthcare because there were more dangers in the workplace caused from people hurting themselves and also by small pox and cholera (Identical). If someone didn't take a shower or wash themselves good, they loud get miasma, which was a bad odor that causes diseases (Identical). The advances they made were building hospitals so people could go to, Pharmaceuticals such as aspirins and et cetera so it could help ease the pain for the people who were hurt (Identical).They could be hurt by the new explosives that were being made to any of the diseases that they could possibly get. Automobiles also became a huge technological a dvance, because they had internal combustion engines that would start off as a one cylinder and then could go to a 4 cylinder. Diesel engines came along and new markets such as rubber for tires and gasoline. The development of electricity brought the idea of telegraphs where you could send messages mainly by Morris code and/or power (Identical). Edition's bulb was also developed, but it was costly.The alternating current was the easy use of electricity at a good cost. The skill of communication advanced by undersea cables that transported messages far distances, the telephone that was invented by Alexander Gram-Bell where there was voice over wires, and also by radios which started with short distances. The biggest and important advances that came about during the second Industrial Revolution were economy and ions. Corporations in the economy were funded by the wealthy in which it replaced gills, and sold stock to investors. Identical). There was limited liability so that people cou ld own their own private boards. There were unions also being formed and workers could get replaced in the blink of an eye, which also brought along strikes. All of the classes were impacted, but the second Industrial Revolution had a huge effect on the working-class families, women and the middle class. Women had to rely on men for money, because they stayed home and took care of it and their children while the men worked.The working-class families had to have a way to support each other, and sometimes children even started working to earn some income for the family. The middle class were wealthy from the Industrial Revolution because they invested well and also prospered (Identical). The lower middle class, who were not working every day, they became a solid middle class by education (Identical). The first and Second Industrial Revolution was very significant to European Civilization in many different ways. It brought about many technological, social, and cultural advances to ever yone with the tremendous amount of production increase. Industrial Revolution Industrial Revolution The Industrial Revolution led to new ways of organizing human labor, more enterprises, growth of energy and power, faster forms of transportation, higher productivity and more (Cole et al. 451). The first revolution began in the north of Britain in 1 760 and ended in 1850. The Industrial Revolution began in Britain, because its agriculture was more commercialese than nap. Veer else, because of its empire, trade networks and transportations of rivers and canals (Cole et al. 452). Because the first Industrial Revolution made such a huge impact, there was a second one as well.The Second Industrial Revolution was based off of innovation in steel, electricity, and chemicals in Germany (Cole et al. 48). It began in 1870 and ended in 1914. This revolution was a larger phased that occurred during World War l, and it had a lot of different advances as well. The first Industrial Revolution began with a technological leap which was cotton textiles (Cole et al. 453). There were many inventions t hat came along that helped the process of cotton. The spinning jenny that was invented by James Harvests, could produce up to six to twenty-four times more yarn than a hand spinner could (Cole et al. 53). There was also a spinning mule that could produce than more yarn than a spinner. The cotton gin invented by Eli Whitney could separate the cotton seeds from the fiber; therefore it could speed up the process and also reduced the price (Cole et al. 453). These machines were placed by water that could be used to power them, and eventually there were more mills being built where they could be used by steam (Cole et al. 453). There were a lot of cotton textiles on the world market that came from this.Interchangeable parts included the gun-making and the standardized patterns of a gun by Honoree Labeled (Identical). Not only did Eli Whitney produce the cotton gin, but he also produces 1 0,000 guns within two years (Identical). Coal and iron were used as heating sources, and also used fo r railroads. Railroads were created for people to travel long distances. The second Industrial Revolution had a lot of different advances that ranged from steel to communication and also medicine. Germany was the top of chemical advances that included the increase demand of dyes, fabrics and soap (Identical).The medicine during this time was bad. They needed better healthcare because there were more dangers in the workplace caused from people hurting themselves and also by small pox and cholera (Identical). If someone didn't take a shower or wash themselves good, they loud get miasma, which was a bad odor that causes diseases (Identical). The advances they made were building hospitals so people could go to, Pharmaceuticals such as aspirins and et cetera so it could help ease the pain for the people who were hurt (Identical).They could be hurt by the new explosives that were being made to any of the diseases that they could possibly get. Automobiles also became a huge technological a dvance, because they had internal combustion engines that would start off as a one cylinder and then could go to a 4 cylinder. Diesel engines came along and new markets such as rubber for tires and gasoline. The development of electricity brought the idea of telegraphs where you could send messages mainly by Morris code and/or power (Identical). Edition's bulb was also developed, but it was costly.The alternating current was the easy use of electricity at a good cost. The skill of communication advanced by undersea cables that transported messages far distances, the telephone that was invented by Alexander Gram-Bell where there was voice over wires, and also by radios which started with short distances. The biggest and important advances that came about during the second Industrial Revolution were economy and ions. Corporations in the economy were funded by the wealthy in which it replaced gills, and sold stock to investors. Identical). There was limited liability so that people cou ld own their own private boards. There were unions also being formed and workers could get replaced in the blink of an eye, which also brought along strikes. All of the classes were impacted, but the second Industrial Revolution had a huge effect on the working-class families, women and the middle class. Women had to rely on men for money, because they stayed home and took care of it and their children while the men worked.The working-class families had to have a way to support each other, and sometimes children even started working to earn some income for the family. The middle class were wealthy from the Industrial Revolution because they invested well and also prospered (Identical). The lower middle class, who were not working every day, they became a solid middle class by education (Identical). The first and Second Industrial Revolution was very significant to European Civilization in many different ways. It brought about many technological, social, and cultural advances to ever yone with the tremendous amount of production increase. Industrial Revolution

Acceptance of refugees

Acceptance of refugees After World War II, the United Nations was instituted and one of their tasks was to set up universal regulations and laws to define the status and rights of refugees. The U.N. High Commission for Refugees organized in 1951 received a three-year mandate to solve postwar refugee problems and was renewed thereafter for five-year periods. Nevertheless, new scope of responsibilities, definitions and restrictions followed with the institution of new conventions and proposals. As of today, the number of refugees remains at an increasing rate and laws have never been stricter and tougher. The refugee crisis remains an ongoing and delicate issue. It encompasses a global predicament that leaves humanity physically and emotionally scarred. Laws that deal with refugee issues are firmer and concerning from different political groups. There were so many real and reel concerns that has been raised and the negative reactions from different nations has become contagious. Throughout history, acceptance of refugees revolved around issues of morality, economics, security and political delineations. We have yet to bypass these obstacles to continue to preserve the unity that has once been restored. Anne Frank is an ordinary girl living her prime as a teenager in a place that other girls of her age would never imagine to be; a place void of fun, dignity, freedom and normalcy. In spite of the living situation she and her family is in, Anne kept abreast of the horror outside of the four walls of the hidden annex and put her perception and unfaltering hope into writing. The diary that was given to her as a gift on her 13th birthday linked the dreads and fears of her own and the outside world during her time. She hang on to that flicker of hope that someday, it will all come to pass. Little did anyone know that a thirteen year old girl will turn out to be a representation of a universal message and her diary an instrument of appeal for equality in dignity and acceptance of each other regardless of our differences. One would have thought after witnessing and/or reading about the horrors of the one of the most devastating part of history, that the world has learned its lesson. The holocaust may now be a thing of the past, a part of history; however, there still are many Anne Frank and her family in different parts of the world being judged, discriminated upon and maltreated. Desperately trying to search for humane treatment, they chose to seek shelter in other nations hoping for a newfound home. Anne Frank’s legacy through her diary stirred an awakening on one of the most distressing part in history and a reflection on how we can make a change to prevent its recurrence. Anne Frank finds freedom in her diary. It is in her writings that silence is broken and autonomy sets in. Reading between the lines, one can find a soulful account of the joy, fear, hope, desperation and a plea. Anne Franks story calls for respect to dignity and equality. Having the courage to face our fears will set the trend in breaking the stigma attached to the refugees. No one ever has to face being judged and discriminated upon based on gender, race, beliefs and faith. The best gift you can give the future is to do something worthwhile in the present. The Catalyst program of Regis supports humanitarian causes through downright expression in words and deeds. We reach out to different countries in need raising funds and awareness to ensure optimization of health and education for those in need. With passion for a great cause, we hope to expand the mission and express the vision worldwide. Together, let us open our minds and listen to our hearts in promoting an attitude of universal acceptance and continue to advocate for the preservation of democracy and human rights for all.

The Public Safety Leaders and the Study of the Future Research Paper

The Public Safety Leaders and the Study of the Future - Research Paper Example Sadly there are some real-life scenarios in the contemporary times, which may extend some relevant insights to the public safety leaders as to how to achieve a balance between the current and future needs. The 9/11 disaster is in itself a glaring example as to how the public safety leaders in the United States failed to interpret the developments taking place in the present, which lead to a leadership crisis in the future (National Commission on Terrorist Attacks, 2004). 9/11 was not only a grave intelligence failure but also a failure on the part of the public safety leaders to arrive at a prognosis of the future threats from the available facts, developments and intelligence inputs (National Commission on Terrorist Attacks, 2004). Going by the topic under consideration, the positive and heartening thing is that in the public safety scenarios, both the success and failure of the leadership models resorted to extend important and vital inputs regarding the needs and requirements of the present are in a way also indicative of the future needs, provided the involved leadership does not fall a victim to a chronic tunnel vision (Storey, 2004, p. 9). In that context, the public safety leaders always need to have their feet firmly fixed in the present, while having a vision that takes the future within its ambit. The current failures and mishaps not only furnish the requisite feedback for immediate improvements but also yield an inventory as to the possible future challenges and requirements (Avolio, 2005, p. 79). So the public safety leaders should be really good at extrapolating the feedbacks of the present to predict the requirements of the future (Avolio, 2005, p. 79). There is a dire tendency amongst the public safety leaders to allocate a greater proportion of the resources and manpower to the immediate scenarios.  

Genocide is a neglected topic within criminal justice and criminology Essay

Genocide is a neglected topic within criminal justice and criminology. Critically analyse this statement - Essay Example tem locally or internationally seems to show a lack of enthusiasm, if such a word is possible, in creating stricter guidelines and punishments when it comes to genocide as compared to how they are, for example, in improving rules with regard to other criminal activities. Genocide is a word used by the late Jewish Polish laywer Raphael Lemkin [Balakian 2013] to describe what the Nazis did to the Jews. Later on, it was further defined by the Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide as any of several listed acts conducted with an intent to destroy, partially or completely, a national, ethnical, racial or religious group. (Akhavan 2007) Genocide was an evil that took the lives of countless of innocent Jewish adults and children. Unfortunately, during that time the criminal system did not have set laws to punish mass killings. The ones accountable were just punished for criminal acts in relation to international armed conflict. The carefully planned execution of the Jews by the Nazi soldiers in the Holocaust is a prime example of genocide. Unfortunately, those responsible for the killings were not charged for genocide as the term did not even exist in that period. Following its establishment as an international crime, the act of genocide reappeared in history only decades later, during the Bosnian conflict to be more specific. This was the time to see criminal justice make a stand on genocide based on the definition set during the Convention. Unluckily for the victims, their deaths have remained dishonored as those left behind are divided as to whether or not the acts fall under the definition of genocide. (Cooke-Welling 2012) This is where criminal justice appears to have neglected genocide. When it had mattered the most, the criminal justice system are still trying to reach a decision on whether the ethnic cleansing that happened in many parts of Bosnia can be considered genocide according to the established definition. Currently,

Avon Products Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Avon Products - Research Paper Example In order to adapt to the fast changing world that will ensure that it will thrive in business, there are different issues that need to come into consideration so that the company does not struggle unnecessarily to survive (Scheiner, 2008). Changes in an organization depend on differ factors that regulate the different things that cause determine its performance and it may include the nature of business, the change itself and the people that are involved in the change. Various things prompt change and therefore, organizational change can be explained from different perspectives according to different models of change that could be relevant in the organization and its environment. In organization of a company, need for change can develop as a result of increased need change on the environment, increased in the number of workers in an organization or the change of the organization strategy that triggers a change in involvement of different people in the organization to the process of ex ploitation of the environment. On the other hand, a change in the organization may result from a change in the organizational management team, which may mean introduction of a new member or more than one in it. In Avon Inc, there were changes in the leadership of the company in which the chairman’s post came under another person who had different perspective of the business than the former CEO. This is one cause of the change that happened in the company in which different strategies of operation came up for the company to ensure that it regain its success in the business. This meant that the employees of Avon Company had to adjust to the new ways of organization of the company as could be directed by a new management leader, which would mean that all the systems would feel the effect. The new chairman in Avon Inc bore the responsibility to instill different modes of motivation and commitment to the organizational change in the company so that all of the employees could maxim ize on their participation and ensure productivity (Bosworth, 2005). Avon experienced stiff competition from other rival companies like the L’Oreal and Revlon who were being better placed in the market and were taking the advantage of the failure of the company. This triggered change in Avon Company because the rise of competitors in the threatened its profitability and created a need to develop a means to address the rising change in the organizational structure. To respond to this issue, people went into the different issues of implementing the changes in the organization so that it can improve the effectiveness and the efficiency of the company’s systems of productions (McCracken, 2006). Another thing that necessitated change in Avon Inc is the withdrawal of the partnering organization that led to reduction to the company’s potential to win its former customers and this made some customers to defect from the company. For example, the withdrawal of Coty from t he business with Avon Inc led to a reduction in the shares returns which reduced by more than a quarter. This meant that

Do markets and the division of labour encourage or discourage social Assignment

Do markets and the division of labour encourage or discourage social cohesion - Assignment Example 7-10). This splitting up and distributing the labor into smaller tasks and jobs emerged the concept of division of labor, as the production process is a huge and complex process. Adam Smith, one of the well-known economists and capitalists, not only presented this idea of division of labor but also was one of the first people to attempt a theory of it. This means that instead of one person striving to complete the entire job, allocating a group of people to perform a small number of specialized tasks would result in greater productive outputs of intricate jobs with less amount of investment utilization (Smith, 2009, pp. 7-10). In other words, the breaking or splitting the entire (big) job into smaller tasks and duties so that multiple workforce performs the tasks and duties, instead of a single person performing the entire job. Moreover, the division of labors means that the labors come under severance into different categories of labor where each set of different workers perform a different task with the division of the work that can come under accomplishment into a product (Smith, 2009, pp. 7-10). This splitting up the workers for specialized work lays the foundation on the principle that the workforce would be able to produce a higher degree of efficiency and productive output when they comes under constraint to perform a particular process, rather than the entire route. Furthermore, by performing smaller tasks, the workers tend to become more skillful and expert in that particular area of production, thus they would be able to be more productive. This also means that the specialized worker would also require less time in production as the time in switching the jobs would come under elimination (Besanko, Dranove, Shanley & Schaefer, 2009, pp. 49-51). Division of labor is one of the fundamental ideologies used in the production systems. This division of labor into specialized jobs reduces the overall cost leads to the

Relationship Marketing Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Relationship Marketing - Essay Example Consumer behavior is rapidly changing in today’ s world. Most of this changing behavior stems from rapidly evolving technology and its growing importance in our life. The emergence of Web 2.0 has also made it possible. It has helped pave way for door to content driven information which could either make one’s business or bring it down. Thus technology has a strong relationship with consumer behavior and eventually its impact on the purchasing behavior of customers. Social networking sites have opened new paradigms in marketing and relational marketing. Most social networking sites, for instance facebook are educational model tools that voice out what that niche of people wants. Models like yahoo, msn and other search engines have come up before but could never generate the community like feeling. Today companies are very accessible to the consumers because people are talking back to back with them. Other factors have also affected relational marketing.With the advent of the retailing era, products and pricing alone cannot target customers. Customers who enter a store with the advent of purchasing might return empty handed due to a number of factors. Though one of the factors is the unavailability of the products they need but there are a number of factors which might deter them. They include not being able to find the product, being unsure about the product because the store atmosphere doesn’t allow them to judge it properly and being uncomfortable in the store. The store might not appeal to them and the shopping experience is not as convenient as they would like it to be and they leave in order to buy that better shopping experience. ... (D Walters and D White, 1987). It involves communicating a positive product image to the customer and also ensuring that the customer decodes it well thus leading to positive behavioral outcome leading to purchase. The basic aim of the retailer is to trigger a customer to make a purchase. For this three major steps are to be followed. The first one should cause the customer to enter the shop. This can be caused by the shops exterior including both the exterior landscape, the board and the window display. The second effort is made to retain the customer in the store for as long as possible which is attained by making the ambience pleasing and the store comfortable. The third and the decision making process of buying is greatly affected by the product display and availability which is ensured by clean products on display in an efficient manner. The interior design of the store can greatly affect the customers psychologically, lowering their defenses and removing their doubts, encourage them to make purchases and maintain interest in the store. (Kotler, 1974). Thus all marketers are unanimous in agreeing with the fact that store design is one of the main factors behind customer store choice decisions. Other factors include pricing, distance and size of the outlet. Previously the emphasis was on the display of the products but now marketers also have to lay emphasis on the elements which excite the senses of the shoppers. Frequently used elements are smells, lighting, flat screen videos and graphics and flooring (McGoldrick, 1990) Visual merchandising involves using four basic design elements namely lighting, cleanliness, design layout and product display. These are also called orienting factors, signage and atmospherics by

Nigerias Growth and Economic Experience Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Nigerias Growth and Economic Experience - Essay Example overty in Nigeria can be attributed to a shortage of vital resources and the endurance of harsh and inhospitable conditions including the breakdown of economic, demographic, ecological, cultural and social systems and bad governance. A community living in the oil producing areas in south of Nigeria displaced by pollution or the migration from rural to urban areas which undermines infrastructural facilities is a good example. A publication courtesy of the UNDP categorised Nigeria as one of the poorest countries in the world. Moreover, there also came a report of the central bank of Nigeria reporting 69.2 per cent of the population being poor. Proportionally this statistics will conclude that two thirds of the Nigerian population are experiencing income poverty. As well in the remote areas of the country, to be specific those in the north east felt that 50 per cent of them were poor and the corresponding figure for the south east was 54.5 per cent (United Nations Development Programme (UNDP), 2009). The poverty gaps are widening and a greater proportion of the wealth is being concentrated in the hands of the wealthiest 20 percent.it is thought that the highest income earning statues is enjoyed by just 10 per cent of the population who have a 31.4 per cent share of the total national income. Nearly 50 per cent of the total income is owned by the twenty per cent of the highest income earning group. Only an insignificant ten per cent of the national income is owned by an estimated 20 per cent of the poorest portion of the population. Reports done by organisations such as UNDP highlights how the poor in Nigeria experience and understand their poverty as quoted by (Pyke and Ali-Akpajiak, 2003). This is so despite the fact that Nigeria’s average growth rate between 2003 and...The country embarked on tenure of democratic change through repeated elections and competitive political structures set in place. However, the new institutions are weak and inchoate, politi cal allies appear divided and self-serving, popular legitimacy is fragile at best and these fledging regimes face numerous challenges including detrimental economic conditions, (Lewis, 2007). The economy had a detrimental decline due to slow growth, joblessness; slack investment, institutional disarray and fitful policy changes. These pressures have contributed to mounting trends of ethnic, religious and local conflicts. Economic outlook A critical look at poverty measurements shows a grim picture. Statistics focus on just 0.2 per cent of GDP on health care and 0.7 per cent on education. Though the country has its own share of problems, external investors have the capacity to contribute positively to its share of long-term investment through joint ventures. A huge beneficiary as an asset is the current high price of crude oil. Proper management and governance has the potential of sustaining Nigeria’s development and prosperity in this century and far beyond.

The Early Days of the Mormons Essay Example for Free

The Early Days of the Mormons Essay In the early days of the Mormon Church, founded by Joseph Smith between 1820 and 1830, periods of strife and tension would follow the early members of the church around the entire United States. Beginning in the East, Joseph Smith would find it difficult to find a safe haven for the organization and headquartering of the Church of Christ. Beginning in Fayette, New York in 1830, Smiths mission was to continue the original Church of Jesus Christ that was no longer on Earth. In 1823, Smith would claim that an angel directed him to a buried book written on golden plates containing the religious history of an ancient people. The Book of Mormon would be the religious texts published as the interpretation of those plates and would be the guiding principles of the Mormon faith. His beliefs that God and Jesus were both once men on Earth before becoming enthroned in the heavens would later become the basis for much of the insults against the Mormons throughout the early years of the church (Abanes, 2002). In the churchs early days of 1830, the Church of Christ would begin to grow and expand through missionaries sent westward to preach the gospel to the settlers. In Ohio, the church would prosper through the work of the missionaries there. As the church expanded into Jackson County, Missouri, settlers in the area became alarmed at the rapid influx of Mormons into the area. This led up to vicious attacks on the Mormons, and the expulsion of the Mormons from Missouri. Following he attacks and the expulsion of the Mormons from Missouri, Joseph Smith would lead the church members to found a new settlement in Nauvoo, Illinois. Tensions would eventually boil over and Joseph Smith along with his brother Hyrum would be killed by a mob near Carthage, Illinois in 1844 (Baugh, 2000). Brigham Young would emerge as the leader of the later known Latter Day Saints and he would go on to lead these pioneers to the Utah Territory. A provincial government under Young would be established in the Utah Territory. The 1800s in America were a time of rapid westward expansion across North America. Accompanied with this expansion, the American government would be undergoing intense battles between political parties. The lands encompassing the Utah Territory would fall under U.S. control following the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo. The territory settled by Young and the Mormon pioneers would come under control of the U.S. by petition for entry into the Union by Young and his charges. Salt Lake City would become the center of the new State of Utah upon its acceptance into the United States. The Mormons were some of the very first pioneers to travel westward and ultimately founded many of the camps, settlements, and cities along the trails moving west from the Mississippi River. Aside from Salt Lake City, the Mormons founded more than 350 communities, from Idaho to Mexico and west to California. These provinces made travel west extremely convenient for pioneers to come. Mormons were also able to form strong bonds with Native Americans. Their efforts proved monumental to the (short-lived) friendship between Whites and Indians (Abanes, 2002). The Mormons were the dominant group in the Great Salt Lake basin. Discoveries of silver, gold, and other valuable resources would lead to many non-Mormons migrating to the area in order to exploit these resources. Due to the nature of the Mormons religious beliefs, the outright dominance of the group in the area would ultimately slow the admission of the group into the Union as the State of Utah for 46 years. Acceptance of the Mormons way of life as a certainty by the federal government would also lend credibility to that way of life, allowing the Mormons to continue to thrive in their new home and expand to other parts of the country. Throughout the turbulent times of the mid to late 1800s, the Mormons underwent many hardships and persecutions by other settlers of the times that were fearful of their belief systems and lifestyles. Under the government of the day, the Mormons contributions would be extremely helpful in the settlement of the Western United States. To this day, the large Mormon population of Utah and the Southwest United States has continued to make numerous contributions to American society and serve under many different administrations of the government. References Abanes, R., One Nation Under Gods: A History of the Mormon Church (Salt Lake City: Four Walls Eight Windows, 2002), 127. Baugh, A. L., A Call to Arms: The 1838 Mormon Defense of Northern Missouri, (BYU Studies, 2000), 82-83. Howe, D.W., _What Hath God Wrought: The Transformation of America 1815-1848,_ (2007) pp 705-6

Rape And Issues In The World Today Criminology Essay

Rape And Issues In The World Today Criminology Essay Rape is a huge issue that plagues the world today. It is a worldwide issue, and is not specific to any one country. Rape also can impact anyone at any time. It is not specific to any one neighborhood, race, gender, sexual orientation, age, or financial status. Rapes continue to happen frequently, and yet many are not reported to the police. Rape is widely thought to be the most underreported crime. There are many stigmas that go along with rape, so it makes it difficult to come forward. Also, it is sometimes difficult to prove rape when there are no physical signs. The victim may also fear being further victimized through the investigative process, so the crime is not reported. Furthermore, with the easy availability of illegal drugs, date rape has become more commonplace. Although date rape can occur without drugs, many times people use illegal substances to render their victims powerless against their advances. This is one form of date rape. In these cases, the victims do not even know what happened to them, and if they were even raped. Some of the drugs can create loss of memory, so it makes it impossible for the victim to express what happened. There are many different drugs used for date rape. Some, like alcohol, are not illegal substances. However, many of the drugs used in date rape are illegal substances. Rape can leave the victim feeling powerless. Many victims experience rape trauma syndrome, which can severely impact their lives. With the prevalence of rape in all communities, it is crucial for people to stay vigilant and aware of their surroundings. Although it is impossible to ensure complete security, there are ways to maintain safety. It is important for everyone to make their own drinks so that no one can slip any drugs into them. Also, a buddy system can be very beneficial to help everyone stay safe, and not end up a bad situation. Reasons Why Rape is Underreported Rape is one of the most underreported crimes. The Uniform Crime Report is an annual report that includes offenses reported to law enforcement agencies at the city, county, and state levels (Meadows, 2010, p. 5). This report details the offenses that are reported to the authorities. The National Crime Victimization Survey is a source of data that recognized incidents not reported to the police and includes a detailed report of crime incidents, victims involved, and trends affecting victims (Meadows, 2010, p. 9). Both the Uniform Crime Report and the National Crime Victimization Survey include information about rape, yet they each report drastically different numbers. There are significantly more rapes reported in the National Crime Victimization Survey than in the Uniform Crime Report. It has been reported by the U.S. Department of Justice that only 31% of all rapes are reported to the authorities (Arrigo, 2006, p. 108). This creates a problem in the criminal justice field because it is difficult to put a stop to rape when most people do not report their victimization. There are many reasons why rape is underreported. The National Crime Victimization Survey found that the most common reason given by victims of violent crime (including rape) for not reporting a crime was that it was a private or personal matter (Meadows, 2010, ps. 9-10). Other reasons why victims may not report rape include fear of reprisal, embarrassment, or the belief that the victim may not be believed (Meadows, 2010, p. 10). These issues all contribute to the underreporting of rape. Rape is a profoundly different type of crime as the attacker is using their body as a weapon. Instead of merely stealing some personal item that can be replaced, the attacker takes something from the victims body and mind, which can never be replaced. This ordeal may only last a few minutes, but feels like hours to the victim as they wonder what will happen next. Also, it can last longer in cases of gang rapes. Once the event is finally over and the victim realizes they have survived, they may not want to talk about it with anyone, and especially not law enforcement officers and prosecutors. Rape truly is the most personal of all crimes. Many people do not talk about sexual matters at all, so they are even less likely to discuss rape. If someone was raised in an environment where they did not talk about sexual things, they will be less likely to report a rape as an adult. It is difficult enough for the victim to get through the actual experience, and victims do not want to have to relive it several times with many different people. Unfortunately, that is the only way to bring justice to the attacker. If the victim comes forward about the attack, they will have to talk to the police at least once, talk to the prosecutor, and talk to the judge or jury depending on the type of case. It would not be as difficult if the victim only had to discuss the issue once, but they continually have to discuss it with different people, all of whom are strangers to them. Rape can occur between a stranger and a victim, but many sexual assaults, however, occur between victims and offenders who know each other (Meadows, 2010, p. 98). This leads the victim to fear retaliation if they do report the attack. Many rapists may even threaten the victim to prevent them from going to the police. Victims take these threats seriously because the attacker has already shown their violent nature, so they may be capable of much worse. In the case of date rape, the attacker may know where the victim lives and works, and this makes their threats more dangerous because they know how to find the victim. A survey of college women showed that 38% reported sexual victimization that met the legal definition of rape or attempted rape, yet only 1 in 25, or 4% reported the incident to the police (Arrigo, 2006, p. 109). This is just a small illustration of how many rapes go unreported, and how many rapists are free to rape again. Rape victims also have to fear the embarrassment that a rape case can bring. When someone does report a rape and it goes to court, the defense may try to prove it was consensual, or that the victim wanted it. Also, the police officers may ask questions that appear to blame the victim. Although there are laws protecting rape victims to a certain extent, there is still embarrassment that goes along with reporting a rape. Many date rape victims are reluctant to report the act for fear that their own behavior will be scrutinized by others (Meadows, 2010, p. 98). This may be because many of the victims of date rape had been drinking or otherwise involved in some type of festivity when the rape occurred (Meadows, 2010, p. 98). Because of their partying, victims may not want to come forward. This also brings embarrassment into their family. It the rape is reported to the police, the family will find out eventually, and the victim may not want them to know. They may want to protect their fam ily, or are simply too embarrassed about the attack. They may not want their parents to know the terrible thing that was done to them. They also may feel partially responsible because they had too much to drink. Ultimately, they do not want to have to talk to complete strangers about what someone did to their own body. Rape is also underreported because victims fear they will not be believed. Many rape cases end up being he said, she said because there is no physical evidence. If there are no bruises or cuts on the victim, it is difficult to prove rape. The emergency room doctor can do a rape kit shortly after the attack to see if there is any evidence. However, even if bodily fluids are found on the victim, that only proves that there was a sexual encounter, it does not prove whether or not it was a consensual act. Many rapists may use verbal threats to get the victim to comply, so there may be no physical marks or bruising. Some women fight back, but others do not because of fear. Rapists may have a weapon they threaten the victims with, so it may be smarter not to fight back in that case. However, this makes it difficult to prosecute. If victims know that there are no bruises or cuts on their body, and it will be difficult to win a case, they many not even report it. Some victims may not report rapes because they do not trust the police. This is especially seen in certain cultures that exhibit a distrust of law enforcement. This may be for many reasons. They may have grown up in a low-income environment where many people participated in illegal activities. They also may have had negative personal experiences with police officers. Also, if they are in the country illegally, they are less likely to report a crime. They may also have a friend or family member who was arrested, and that makes them dislike the police as well. It can also be difficult for victims to come forward regarding sexual assault due to the large percentage of male law enforcement officers. When someone reports a rape, they are asked extremely precise and intimate questions about what exactly the attacker did to them. They have to give details about the encounter that may be difficult to talk about, and it is even worse when the victim is female, and has to discuss it with a male. Although males can be victims of sexual assault, many victims are females, and they have to talk to male officers about their sexual assault. It is uncomfortable for many people to talk to a stranger about anything sexual, so to discuss a sexual assault is even worse. This is made even more challenging as officers can sometimes seem to be uncaring. The officers job is to collect the information about the crime. They are not responsible for consoling the victim, so they may come across as being abrupt or unsympathetic. This only causes the victim more pain as they have to discuss the assault and feel like they are not getting any sympathy. These are only a few of the reasons why rape is underreported. Victims have their own reasons for not reporting rapes, including fear of embarrassment, fear of retaliation, and the fear that they will not be believed. They also may not want to discuss this due to the personal nature of the crime. Victims may just want to move on with their lives and act like the assault never happened. What is date rape? There are many different types of rape. One type is called stranger rape. This is when a complete stranger rapes someone. These rapists often use weapons and threats of violence to gain the victims submission (Arrigo, 2006). However, the most common type of rape is called date rape. This occurs when someone is raped by a person they know. They may be on a date with this person, or be socializing with them at a party. This is extremely common, and often happens on college campuses. Date rape can also include when the assailant uses some type of drugs to make the victim powerless against the attack. Most rapes occur between victims and attackers who are known to each other. In fact, among victims 18-29 years old, two-thirds had a prior relationship with the rapist (Meadows, 2010, p. 97). Many rapists attack ex-girlfriends, casual acquaintances, or people they are currently dating. These rapes are especially difficult as the attacker is someone the victim knows and trusts. The victim may even have to see the rapist around town if they decide not to report the rape. In addition, studies on college campuses have indicated that date rape is increasing (Meadows, 2010, p. 98). An alarming survey shows that more than half of a representative sample of more than 1,000 female students at a large urban university had experienced some form of unwanted sex (Meadows, 2010, p. 98). Of these reported acts, twelve percent were done by casual dates, while 43 percent were done by steady dating partners (Meadows, 2010, p. 98). One study found that many women raped by men they know do not think of themselves as rape victims (Meadows, 2010, p. 98). Perhaps they think the rape was simply a misunderstanding. Still another study shows that date rape primarily occurs when the date was unplanned or the woman had been picked up in a social setting (Meadows, 2010, p. 98). Further studies have shown that 1 in 4 college women . . . [have] been raped or [have] suffered an attempted rape (Arrigo, 2006, p.109). These studies show the frequency of date rape occurring on colleg e campuses. Many researchers have attempted to determine why date rape is so prevalent on college campuses. Mary P. Koss is considered to be one of the most prolific researchers on rape (Schmalleger, 2009, p. 403). Koss conducted much research on college campuses, and found that 73% of the rape victims reported that the offender was drinking (Schmalleger, 2009, p. 403). Some researchers point to the college lifestyle as the reason why date rape is so common. Fraternities can contribute to the formation of attitudes that and behaviors that objectify women and normalize sexual coercion (Schmalleger, 2009, p. 403). Fraternity parties have a long history of underage drinking and random sexual acts. This is a problem when the sexual acts are not consensual. Furthermore, fraternities are about brotherhood, and this creates a preoccupation with loyalty, group protection and security, use of alcohol as a weapon, involvement in violence and physical force, and an emphasis on competitiveness and superiori ty (Schmalleger, 2009, p. 403). This brotherhood mentality makes it difficult for anyone to come forward if they witness anything inappropriate. Even if a victim comes forward, the attackers entire fraternity house may come to his defense, making it difficult to win a criminal case. Date rape is far too common amongst young people today. Victims do not typically come forward to report what happened, which leaves the rapist able to do the same thing to yet another victim. The partying lifestyle found at some colleges contributes to the rape problem. Parties can end up being a place where drunken men force themselves upon others, who are unable to resist. The victim is left feeling helpless and afraid, and in some cases may not even know what happened. Drugs Used in Date Rape Sometimes rapists use drugs to make their victim drowsy or unable to fight back. There are many different types of drugs used in this way. Rohypnol, gamma hydroxybutyric acid (more commonly known as GHB), and ketamine are just a few date rape drugs that may be slipped into an unwilling participants drink. These drugs are used for date rape because they produce prolonged sedation, a feeling of well-being, and short-term memory loss (Meadows, 2010, p. 98). In addition, many drugs on the market have no particular color, smell, or taste, which makes it easy to add to a victims drink without anyone knowing (Meadows, 2010, p. 99). Because these drugs can create short-term memory loss, the victim may not even know if they were raped or not. Rohypnol is a drug prescribed for insomnia, and is also used as preoperative anesthetic (Meadows, 2010). It also has medical uses as a muscle relaxant, hypnotic, anti-convulsant, sedative, and anti-anxiety medication (Schmalleger, 2009). Rohypnol is the trade name for flunitrazepam. It is a benzodiazepine, and is a central nervous system depressant. Rohypnol can incapacitate victims and prevent them from resisting sexual assault (Meadows, 2010, p. 99). It also can create anterograde amnesia, which makes the victim not remember anything that happened while under the influence of the drug. The effects of Rohypnol can be felt within about thirty minutes of ingesting the drug (Weiss, 2008). The effects of Rohypnol can last from one to eight hours (Schmalleger, 2009). This can make the entire night a blur, and the victim may not remember anything about the night. A further danger of Rohypnol is that it can be lethal when it is mixed with alcoholic beverages or other depressants. This coul d cause a date rape to turn into a murder. This drug is not approved for use in the United States. However, the drug became more commonplace in the 1990s for date rape purposes, and became known as a roofie (Meadows, 2010). Gamma hydroxybutyric acid is another central nervous system depressant. GHB, also called Liquid X, has been used since the 1990s in the United States for its euphoric, sedative, and anabolic (body-building) effects (Meadows, 2010, p. 100). This drug was actually sold in health food stores in the 1980s and the early 1990s (Meadows, 2010). Like Rohypnol, GHB can have negative effects if taken with alcoholic beverages. It can cause breathing problems and nausea (Meadows, 2010). GHB can take effect within fifteen minutes of being drugged (Weiss, 2008). The effects of GHB can last between three and six hours (Meadows 2010). Some of the effects of GHB use are slurred speech, disorientation, drunken behavior without odor of alcohol, [and] impaired memory of events (Schmalleger, 2009, p. 540). Also, a study was conducted with 17 GHB users being interviewed about their drug use. This study found that while on the drug, 65% of users had an increased sexual desire, and 47% had decreased sexual inhibitions (Lee Levounis, 2008). Some of the subjects even mentioned that GHB could cause poor decision making in sexual situations (Lee Levounis, 2008, p. 245). This further illustrates why assailants would use this drug. If the victim is given too much GHB, the effects of overdose include shallow respiration, clammy skin, dilated pupils, weak and rapid pulse, coma, and possible death (Schmalleger, 2009, p. 540). This drug can be very dangerous. Ketamine, also known as Special K, is another date rape drug. Ketamine is used in the United States as an anesthetic, and is predominantly used on animals in veterinary offices (Justice.com, 2011). According to the United States Drug Enforcement Administration, recent press reports indicate that a significant number of veterinary clinics are being robbed specifically for their ketamine stock (Justice.com, 2011). Thieves are stealing the ketamine and selling it as a drug to party-goers. It can come in a clear liquid form, so it is very easy to slip into drinks undetected. This drug is often used as a club drug, so it is easily accessible to students who may be planning a date rape. Some of the effects of ketamine are delirium, amnesia, depression, and long-term memory and cognitive difficulties (Justice.com, 2011). This drug, like GHB and Rohypnol, leaves the victim unsure of what has taken place. The effects of ketamine can be felt almost immediately (Weiss, 2008). Also, the victim m ay be aware of what is taking place, but unable to stop it (Weiss, 2008). One date rape drug that is commonly used at parties is alcohol. According to the National Womens Health Information Center, any drug that can affect judgment and behavior can put a person at risk for unwanted or risky sexual activity (Weiss, 2008). This definition includes alcohol. Even though the victim may be willingly ingesting the alcohol, someone may take advantage of them once they are drunk. Alcohol can make it difficult to think clearly, harder to tell if a situation is dangerous, and harder to fight back if attacked (Weiss, 2008). Also, like the other date rape drugs, alcohol can cause memory loss, or a black out (Weiss, 2008). The victim may black out and be raped, and not remember what happened the next day. One common effect of date rape drugs is their ability to inhibit the victims memory. These drugs cause short-term memory loss so the victim is unsure if they were raped. This makes it less likely that the victim will report the incident to the police. In fact, the victim may not even realize they were drugged at all. If the victim was drinking the night before, it is possible they will think they simply had too much to drink. This further illustrates why date rape is drastically underreported. What Happens in the Emergency Room? After someone is raped, they may need medical attention. Most often they visit their local emergency room for treatment. It is estimated that 75% of female rape victims require medical attention after their attack (Arrigo, 2006, p. 109). Although different areas and hospitals may have different procedures for handling a rape victim, typically the process is similar. The medical staff will call law enforcement to make a police report, will call the local rape crisis group, will call the Division of Family and Children Services if a minor is involved, and will perform a full examination of the victim. When the police officer arrives to take a report of the alleged rape, they must speak to the victim. They will ask the victim to recall everything that happened in the attack. If the area has a local rape crisis advocacy group, there may be a victims advocate there to help the victim with this process. In an ideal situation, the victim can explain to the officer, victims advocate, and medical staff what took place at the same time so they do not have to repeat themselves. However, many times all parties are not present at the same time, and the victim is forced to relive the event multiple times. The victim must give details about the location of the attack, and what the attacker did specifically. They must tell exactly where the attacker touched them, and where the attacker kissed them. All of this information is crucial for the evidence collection process. Once the police officer has made the report, they will leave. The victim will undergo a thorough medical examination to ensure there are no health concerns. Depending on the nature of the attack, the victim may have a pregnancy test done. Charlotte Murton, a rape crisis specialist, noted that it is also common for the medical staff to check for gonorrhea and Chlamydia (Rape Crisis and Sexual Assault Services Volunteer Training, 2010). The victims must follow up with their personal doctor or local health department to have a more complete sexually transmitted disease screen at a later time. Most victims are also given antibiotics to ward off possible infection. The medical staff will also check for any tearing or irritation in the areas of the attack. When the victim goes to the emergency room, they may have the option to do a rape kit or evidence kit. If the assault happened within 120 hours of the emergency room visit, the medical staff can do the evidence kit (Rape Crisis and Sexual Assault Services Volunteer Training, 2010). This will help collect evidence for a possible trial if the victim decides to press charges. This process is extremely invasive and can even be painful, but it is the only way to collect certain evidence. Typically a rape crisis advocate will stay with the victim throughout the entire process. The process for collecting evidence in Augusta, Georgia is very specific, although the order may be changed. First, the victim must stand on a large piece of paper and undress. The paper is there to collect any loose fibers as the victim undresses. The victims clothes will then be bagged up separately in case there is evidence on the clothes (Rape Crisis and Sexual Assault Services Volunteer Training, 2010). All of t he clothes, including underwear, will be kept as evidence. Once the victim is undressed, the medical staff will do a visual inspection to see if there are any obvious injuries. If so, these injuries will be documented and photographed. Then the victim will have to give 25 hairs from their head (Rape Crisis and Sexual Assault Services Volunteer Training, 2010). This serves to show the DNA of the victim. Any areas the victim was licked or kissed will be swabbed for possible DNA. There also may be a swab of the victims mouth if there was any type of oral contact. The victim will then lie down with a large piece of paper below them to catch any loose hairs or fibers. The nurse will use a comb on the victims pubic hair to gather any loose hairs that may be from the attacker (Rape Crisis and Sexual Assault Services Volunteer Training, 2010). The nurse must then use a special comb that rips out hair to gather 25 of the victims pubic hairs from the root (Rape Crisis and Sexual Assault Services Volunteer Training, 2010). This process is especially painful. The nurse will also use a black light to see if there are any fluids that fluoresce. If something does show up, that area will be swabbed (Rape Crisis and Sexual Assault Services Volunteer Training, September 17, 2010). If the victim fought against the attacker, the nurse will clean under the victims nails to get possible debris. The nurse will also swab the victims vagina, anus, or penis depending on the nature of the attack (Rape Crisis and Sexual Assault Services Volunteer Training, 2010). If the victim was drugged and is unsure what happened, all areas will be swabbed. There will be several swabs of each area. The victim will then be given clothes or scrubs to wear home. In areas that have a rape crisis center, volunteer advocates are on call at all times to help a victim in need. They are called in to be with the victim throughout the entire emergency room visit, and will follow up with the victim at a later date. These advocates act as liaisons between the victim, medical staff, and police officers. They can let the victim know what to expect in the examinations, and what to expect if they press charges. They also have information about places to obtain counseling and support. This is particularly important for victims who do not have family or friends with them in the emergency room. The process that victims undergo at the emergency room can be very painful and draining. They have to relive the experience to many different people and discuss extremely private matters. Many times, law enforcement officers are male, and the victim must discuss sexual things with this male. This proves to be a difficult experience as sometimes victims are not even able to articulate what happened. They may want to forget about it or not talk about it. Then they have to go through a medical examination to make sure they are healthy. If they decide not to do an evidence kit, it is still recommended that a doctor do a pelvic exam and take swabs for possible sexually transmitted diseases. If the victim does decide to go through with an evidence kit, it is a painful and invasive process. There may even be pictures taken of the victims body if there are bruises or cuts. In addition, in some areas the rape kits may not even be tested. The Texas Tribune reports that the state is so behind i n testing rape kits that it is impossible to catch up (Grissom, 2011). Some unprocessed rape kits in Texas date back to the 1980s (Grissom, 2011). Even if the kits are processed, it can take a year before the results are known (Grissom, 2011). This gives insight into why so many rapes go unreported, and why so many people choose not to have an evidence kit. Consequences of Rape Rape is a horrifying and invasive crime. It has the potential to completely change the victims life. With some crimes, once the actual crime is over, the victim can move on with their life. This is not the case with rape victims. Once the attack is over, there are many other issues the victim will encounter. Many victims of rape experience long-term consequences of their attack. There may be physical consequences deriving from the attack. There also may be emotional consequences. Many rape victims have difficulties returning to their normal lives after the attack. They may exhibit symptoms of rape trauma syndrome, a type of post-traumatic stress disorder. There are many physical consequences that can arise from rape. The victim may become pregnant from the attack. This leads to a difficult decision for the victim, made even more difficult if they do not believe abortion is an appropriate option. Some women may have religious or personal views that prevent them from getting an abortion, and thus are forced to go through a pregnancy resulting from a rape. In addition, the adult rape pregnancy rate is actually increasing based on United States Census Reports (Meadows 2010). It is estimated that there may be 32,100 rape-related pregnancies annually among America women over the age of 18 years (Meadows, 2010, p. 102). This statistic does not even include all the minors who become pregnant due to a sexual assault. Rape victims can also contract sexually transmitted diseases from the attack. Depending on the disease, there may be an easy cure, or they may have to live with the disease for the rest of their lives. If they contract acquired immune deficiency syndrome, more commonly known as AIDS, their life may actually be shortened. This is why many emergency rooms administer antibiotics when someone claims they have been raped. This is an attempt to cure a disease before it is even diagnosed. Also, some emergency rooms may have prophylactic treatment for those who may have been exposed to AIDS. Rape victims may also have acute injuries resulting from the rape (Meadows 2010). Depending on the level of violence in the rape, these injuries can be minimal to severe. Typically the most violent rapes are stranger rapes. This is because stranger rapists are more likely to involve the use of a weapon (Arrigo, 2006, p. 109). This weapon is most frequently a knife (Arrigo, 2006). If the attacker used the knife to stab the victim, there may be internal injuries or bleeding. Attackers also may beat their victims. This can lead to simple cuts and bruises or more complex injuries like broken ribs. In addition, the victim may experience vaginal or rectal tears from the rape. There are both emotional and psychological issues resulting from rape that are included in rape trauma syndrome. There are two phases of rape trauma syndrome. The first phase is the acute phase. In the acute phase, the victim experiences a complete disruption of her life, resulting from the violence she experienced (Meadows, 2010, p. 38). The victim may have a range of emotions during the acute phase, including crying, shouting, swearing, or laughing inappropriately (Meadows, 2010, p. 38). The victim may experience severe mood swings, and change emotions very quickly. They may be fearful to even leave their home. If the attack happened in their home, they may not feel safe living there anymore. The second phase of rape trauma syndrome is the reorganization phase. In the reorganization phase, victims must reorganize their lives (Meadows, 2010). This is accomplished with help from friends and family members (Meadows, 2010). During this phase, the victims have to learn ways to cope with their daily lives, and the disturbing thoughts that may enter their minds at any time. They may return to work and attempt to move on, but the pain and fear is still present in their minds. There are many different symptoms of rape trauma syndrome. Some of the symptoms include fear, helplessness, shock, disbelief, guilt, humiliation, embarrassment, anger, self-blame, flashbacks of the rape, avoidance of previously pleasurable activities, avoidance of the place or circumstances in which the rape occurred, depression, sexual dysfunction, insomnia, and impaired memory (Meadows, 2010, p. 102). These symptoms greatly inhibit the victims ability to heal and move on with their life. They may be happy one moment, and then suddenly be overcome with sadness and not able to understand where the sadness originated. While in the acute phase they may experience a wide range of emotions. When they enter the reorganization phase, they may not have quite as many mood swings, but may experience flashbacks of the attack. This contributes to their insomnia. Victims are afraid to go to sleep because they may have nightmares of the attack. They also lost their sense of control when they were attacked, and going to sleep leaves them vulnerable yet again.